List = [1, 2, 3, "GFG", 2.3]
print(List)

# Creating a List with
# the use of multiple values
List = ["Geeks", "For", "Geeks"]
print("\nList containing multiple values: ")
print(List)

# Creating a Multi-Dimensional List
# (By Nesting a list inside a List)
List2 = [['Geeks', 'For'], ['Geeks']]
print("\nMulti-Dimensional List: ")
print(List2)

# accessing a element from the
# list using index number
print("Accessing element from the list")
print(List[0])
print(List[2])

# accessing a element using
# negative indexing
print("Accessing element using negative indexing")
    
# print the last element of list
print(List[-1])
    
# print the third last element of list
print(List[-3])

# Creating a Tuple with
# the use of Strings
Tuple = ('Geeks', 'For')
print("\nTuple with the use of String: ")
print(Tuple)
    
# Creating a Tuple with
# the use of list
list1 = [1, 2, 4, 5, 6]
print("\nTuple using List: ")
Tuple = tuple(list1)

# Accessing element using indexing
print("First element of tuple")
print(Tuple[0])

# Accessing element from last
# negative indexing
print("\nLast element of tuple")
print(Tuple[-1])

print("\nThird last element of tuple")
print(Tuple[-3])

# Creating a Set with
# a mixed type of values
# (Having numbers and strings)
Set = set([1, 2, 'Geeks', 4, 'For', 6, 'Geeks'])
print("\nSet with the use of Mixed Values")
print(Set)

# Accessing element using
# for loop
print("\nElements of set: ")
for i in Set:
    print(i, end =" ")
print()

# Checking the element
# using in keyword
print("Geeks" in Set)

# Same as {"a", "b","c"}
normal_set = set(["a", "b","c"])

print("Normal Set")
print(normal_set)

# A frozen set
frozen_set = frozenset(["e", "f", "g"])

print("\nFrozen Set")
print(frozen_set)

# Uncommenting below line would cause error as
# we are trying to add element to a frozen set
# frozen_set.add("h")

String = "Welcome to GeeksForGeeks"
print("Creating String: ")
print(String)
    
# Printing First character
print("\nFirst character of String is: ")
print(String[0])
    
# Printing Last character
print("\nLast character of String is: ")
print(String[-1])

# Creating a Dictionary
Dict = {'Name': 'Geeks', 1: [1, 2, 3, 4]}
print("Creating Dictionary: ")
print(Dict)

# accessing a element using key
print("Accessing a element using key:")
print(Dict['Name'])

# accessing a element using get()
# method
print("Accessing a element using get:")
print(Dict.get(1))

# creation using Dictionary comprehension
myDict = {x: x**2 for x in [1,2,3,4,5]}
print(myDict)

import numpy as np

a = np.array([[1,2,3,4],[4,55,1,2],
              [8,3,20,19],[11,2,22,21]])
m = np.reshape(a,(4, 4))
print(m)

# Accessing element
print("\nAccessing Elements")
print(a[1])
print(a[2][0])

# Adding Element
m = np.append(m,[[1, 15,13,11]],0)
print("\nAdding Element")
print(m)

# Deleting Element
m = np.delete(m,[1],0)
print("\nDeleting Element")
print(m)

# Creating bytearray
a = bytearray((12, 8, 25, 2))
print("Creating Bytearray:")
print(a)

# accessing elements
print("\nAccessing Elements:", a[1])

# modifying elements
a[1] = 3
print("\nAfter Modifying:")
print(a)

# Appending elements
a.append(30)
print("\nAfter Adding Elements:")
print(a)

# Node class
class Node:

    # Function to initialize the node object
    def __init__(self, data):
        self.data = data # Assign data
        self.next = None # Initialize
                        # next as null

# Linked List class
class LinkedList:
    
    # Function to initialize the Linked
    # List object
    def __init__(self):
        self.head = None

# A simple Python program to introduce a linked list

# Node class
class Node:

    # Function to initialise the node object
    def __init__(self, data):
        self.data = data # Assign data
        self.next = None # Initialize next as null


# Linked List class contains a Node object
class LinkedList:

    # Function to initialize head
    def __init__(self):
        self.head = None


# Code execution starts here
if __name__=='__main__':

    # Start with the empty list
    llist = LinkedList()

    llist.head = Node(1)
    second = Node(2)
    third = Node(3)

    '''
    Three nodes have been created.
    We have references to these three blocks as head,
    second and third

    llist.head     second             third
        |             |                 |
        |             |                 |
    +----+------+     +----+------+     +----+------+
    | 1 | None |     | 2 | None |     | 3 | None |
    +----+------+     +----+------+     +----+------+
    '''

    llist.head.next = second; # Link first node with second

    '''
    Now next of first Node refers to second. So they
    both are linked.

    llist.head     second             third
        |             |                 |
        |             |                 |
    +----+------+     +----+------+     +----+------+
    | 1 | o-------->| 2 | null |     | 3 | null |
    +----+------+     +----+------+     +----+------+
    '''

    second.next = third; # Link second node with the third node

    '''
    Now next of second Node refers to third. So all three
    nodes are linked.

    llist.head     second             third
        |             |                 |
        |             |                 |
    +----+------+     +----+------+     +----+------+
    | 1 | o-------->| 2 | o-------->| 3 | null |
    +----+------+     +----+------+     +----+------+
    '''

# A simple Python program for traversal of a linked list

# Node class
class Node:

    # Function to initialise the node object
    def __init__(self, data):
        self.data = data # Assign data
        self.next = None # Initialize next as null


# Linked List class contains a Node object
class LinkedList:

    # Function to initialize head
    def __init__(self):
        self.head = None

    # This function prints contents of linked list
    # starting from head
    def printList(self):
        temp = self.head
        while (temp):
            print (temp.data)
            temp = temp.next


# Code execution starts here
if __name__=='__main__':

    # Start with the empty list
    llist = LinkedList()

    llist.head = Node(1)
    second = Node(2)
    third = Node(3)

    llist.head.next = second; # Link first node with second
    second.next = third; # Link second node with the third node

    llist.printList()

stack = []

# append() function to push
# element in the stack
stack.append('g')
stack.append('f')
stack.append('g')

print('Initial stack')
print(stack)

# pop() function to pop
# element from stack in
# LIFO order
print('\nElements popped from stack:')
print(stack.pop())
print(stack.pop())
print(stack.pop())

print('\nStack after elements are popped:')
print(stack)

# uncommenting print(stack.pop())
# will cause an IndexError
# as the stack is now empty

# Initializing a queue
queue = []

# Adding elements to the queue
queue.append('g')
queue.append('f')
queue.append('g')

print("Initial queue")
print(queue)

# Removing elements from the queue
print("\nElements dequeued from queue")
print(queue.pop(0))
print(queue.pop(0))
print(queue.pop(0))

print("\nQueue after removing elements")
print(queue)

# Uncommenting print(queue.pop(0))
# will raise and IndexError
# as the queue is now empty

# A simple implementation of Priority Queue
# using Queue.
class PriorityQueue(object):
    def __init__(self):
        self.queue = []

    def __str__(self):
        return ' '.join([str(i) for i in self.queue])

    # for checking if the queue is empty
    def isEmpty(self):
        return len(self.queue) == 0

    # for inserting an element in the queue
    def insert(self, data):
        self.queue.append(data)

    # for popping an element based on Priority
    def delete(self):
        try:
            max = 0
            for i in range(len(self.queue)):
                if self.queue[i] > self.queue[max]:
                    max = i
            item = self.queue[max]
            del self.queue[max]
            return item
        except IndexError:
            print()
            exit()

if __name__ == '__main__':
    myQueue = PriorityQueue()
    myQueue.insert(12)
    myQueue.insert(1)
    myQueue.insert(14)
    myQueue.insert(7)
    print(myQueue)        
    while not myQueue.isEmpty():
        print(myQueue.delete())

# importing "heapq" to implement heap queue
import heapq

# initializing list
li = [5, 7, 9, 1, 3]

# using heapify to convert list into heap
heapq.heapify(li)

# printing created heap
print ("The created heap is : ",end="")
print (list(li))

# using heappush() to push elements into heap
# pushes 4
heapq.heappush(li,4)

# printing modified heap
print ("The modified heap after push is : ",end="")
print (list(li))

# using heappop() to pop smallest element
print ("The popped and smallest element is : ",end="")
print (heapq.heappop(li))

# A Python class that represents an individual node
# in a Binary Tree
class Node:
    def __init__(self,key):
        self.left = None
        self.right = None
        self.val = key

# Python program to introduce Binary Tree

# A class that represents an individual node in a
# Binary Tree
class Node:
    def __init__(self,key):
        self.left = None
        self.right = None
        self.val = key


# create root
root = Node(1)
''' following is the tree after above statement
        1
    / \
    None None'''

root.left     = Node(2);
root.right     = Node(3);

''' 2 and 3 become left and right children of 1
        1
        / \
        2     3
    / \ / \
None None None None'''


root.left.left = Node(4);
'''4 becomes left child of 2
        1
    /     \
    2         3
    / \     / \
4 None None None
/ \
None None'''

# Python program to for tree traversals

# A class that represents an individual node in a
# Binary Tree
class Node:
    def __init__(self, key):
        self.left = None
        self.right = None
        self.val = key


# A function to do inorder tree traversal
def printInorder(root):

    if root:

        # First recur on left child
        printInorder(root.left)

        # then print the data of node
        print(root.val),

        # now recur on right child
        printInorder(root.right)


# A function to do postorder tree traversal
def printPostorder(root):

    if root:

        # First recur on left child
        printPostorder(root.left)

        # the recur on right child
        printPostorder(root.right)

        # now print the data of node
        print(root.val),


# A function to do preorder tree traversal
def printPreorder(root):

    if root:

        # First print the data of node
        print(root.val),

        # Then recur on left child
        printPreorder(root.left)

        # Finally recur on right child
        printPreorder(root.right)


# Driver code
root = Node(1)
root.left = Node(2)
root.right = Node(3)
root.left.left = Node(4)
root.left.right = Node(5)
print("Preorder traversal of binary tree is")
printPreorder(root)

print("\nInorder traversal of binary tree is")
printInorder(root)

print("\nPostorder traversal of binary tree is")
printPostorder(root)

# Python program to print level
# order traversal using Queue

# A node structure
class Node:

    # A utility function to create a new node
    def __init__(self ,key):
        self.data = key
        self.left = None
        self.right = None

# Iterative Method to print the
# height of a binary tree
def printLevelOrder(root):

    # Base Case
    if root is None:
        return
    
    # Create an empty queue
    # for level order traversal
    queue = []

    # Enqueue Root and initialize height
    queue.append(root)

    while(len(queue) > 0):
    
        # Print front of queue and
        # remove it from queue
        print (queue[0].data)
        node = queue.pop(0)

        # Enqueue left child
        if node.left is not None:
            queue.append(node.left)

        # Enqueue right child
        if node.right is not None:
            queue.append(node.right)

# Driver Program to test above function
root = Node(1)
root.left = Node(2)
root.right = Node(3)
root.left.left = Node(4)
root.left.right = Node(5)

print ("Level Order Traversal of binary tree is -")
printLevelOrder(root)

# A utility function to search a given key in BST
def search(root,key):
    
    # Base Cases: root is null or key is present at root
    if root is None or root.val == key:
        return root

    # Key is greater than root's key
    if root.val < key:
        return search(root.right,key)

    # Key is smaller than root's key
    return search(root.left,key)

# Python program to demonstrate
# insert operation in binary search tree

# A utility class that represents
# an individual node in a BST
class Node:
    def __init__(self, key):
        self.left = None
        self.right = None
        self.val = key

# A utility function to insert
# a new node with the given key
def insert(root, key):
    if root is None:
        return Node(key)
    else:
        if root.val == key:
            return root
        elif root.val < key:
            root.right = insert(root.right, key)
        else:
            root.left = insert(root.left, key)
    return root

# A utility function to do inorder tree traversal
def inorder(root):
    if root:
        inorder(root.left)
        print(root.val)
        inorder(root.right)


# Driver program to test the above functions
# Let us create the following BST
# 50
# /     \
# 30     70
# / \ / \
# 20 40 60 80

r = Node(50)
r = insert(r, 30)
r = insert(r, 20)
r = insert(r, 40)
r = insert(r, 70)
r = insert(r, 60)
r = insert(r, 80)

# Print inorder traversal of the BST
inorder(r)

# A simple representation of graph using Adjacency Matrix
class Graph:
    def __init__(self,numvertex):
        self.adjMatrix = [[-1]*numvertex for x in range(numvertex)]
        self.numvertex = numvertex
        self.vertices = {}
        self.verticeslist =[0]*numvertex

    def set_vertex(self,vtx,id):
        if 0<=vtx<=self.numvertex:
            self.vertices[id] = vtx
            self.verticeslist[vtx] = id

    def set_edge(self,frm,to,cost=0):
        frm = self.vertices[frm]
        to = self.vertices[to]
        self.adjMatrix[frm][to] = cost
        
        # for directed graph do not add this
        self.adjMatrix[to][frm] = cost

    def get_vertex(self):
        return self.verticeslist

    def get_edges(self):
        edges=[]
        for i in range (self.numvertex):
            for j in range (self.numvertex):
                if (self.adjMatrix[i][j]!=-1):
                    edges.append((self.verticeslist[i],self.verticeslist[j],self.adjMatrix[i][j]))
        return edges
        
    def get_matrix(self):
        return self.adjMatrix

G =Graph(6)
G.set_vertex(0,'a')
G.set_vertex(1,'b')
G.set_vertex(2,'c')
G.set_vertex(3,'d')
G.set_vertex(4,'e')
G.set_vertex(5,'f')
G.set_edge('a','e',10)
G.set_edge('a','c',20)
G.set_edge('c','b',30)
G.set_edge('b','e',40)
G.set_edge('e','d',50)
G.set_edge('f','e',60)

print("Vertices of Graph")
print(G.get_vertex())

print("Edges of Graph")
print(G.get_edges())

print("Adjacency Matrix of Graph")
print(G.get_matrix())

# A class to represent the adjacency list of the node
class AdjNode:
    def __init__(self, data):
        self.vertex = data
        self.next = None


# A class to represent a graph. A graph
# is the list of the adjacency lists.
# Size of the array will be the no. of the
# vertices "V"
class Graph:
    def __init__(self, vertices):
        self.V = vertices
        self.graph = [None] * self.V

    # Function to add an edge in an undirected graph
    def add_edge(self, src, dest):
    
        # Adding the node to the source node
        node = AdjNode(dest)
        node.next = self.graph[src]
        self.graph[src] = node

        # Adding the source node to the destination as
        # it is the undirected graph
        node = AdjNode(src)
        node.next = self.graph[dest]
        self.graph[dest] = node

    # Function to print the graph
    def print_graph(self):
        for i in range(self.V):
            print("Adjacency list of vertex {}\n head".format(i), end="")
            temp = self.graph[i]
            while temp:
                print(" -> {}".format(temp.vertex), end="")
                temp = temp.next
            print(" \n")


# Driver program to the above graph class
if __name__ == "__main__":
    V = 5
    graph = Graph(V)
    graph.add_edge(0, 1)
    graph.add_edge(0, 4)
    graph.add_edge(1, 2)
    graph.add_edge(1, 3)
    graph.add_edge(1, 4)
    graph.add_edge(2, 3)
    graph.add_edge(3, 4)

    graph.print_graph()

# Python3 Program to print BFS traversal
# from a given source vertex. BFS(int s)
# traverses vertices reachable from s.
from collections import defaultdict

# This class represents a directed graph
# using adjacency list representation
class Graph:

    # Constructor
    def __init__(self):

        # default dictionary to store graph
        self.graph = defaultdict(list)

    # function to add an edge to graph
    def addEdge(self,u,v):
        self.graph[u].append(v)

    # Function to print a BFS of graph
    def BFS(self, s):

        # Mark all the vertices as not visited
        visited = [False] * (max(self.graph) + 1)

        # Create a queue for BFS
        queue = []

        # Mark the source node as
        # visited and enqueue it
        queue.append(s)
        visited[s] = True

        while queue:

            # Dequeue a vertex from
            # queue and print it
            s = queue.pop(0)
            print (s, end = " ")

            # Get all adjacent vertices of the
            # dequeued vertex s. If a adjacent
            # has not been visited, then mark it
            # visited and enqueue it
            for i in self.graph[s]:
                if visited[i] == False:
                    queue.append(i)
                    visited[i] = True

# Driver code

# Create a graph given in
# the above diagram
g = Graph()
g.addEdge(0, 1)
g.addEdge(0, 2)
g.addEdge(1, 2)
g.addEdge(2, 0)
g.addEdge(2, 3)
g.addEdge(3, 3)

print ("Following is Breadth First Traversal"
                " (starting from vertex 2)")
g.BFS(2)

# Python3 program to print DFS traversal
# from a given  graph
from collections import defaultdict

# This class represents a directed graph using
# adjacency list representation
class Graph:

    # Constructor
    def __init__(self):

        # default dictionary to store graph
        self.graph = defaultdict(list)

    # function to add an edge to graph
    def addEdge(self, u, v):
        self.graph[u].append(v)

    # A function used by DFS
    def DFSUtil(self, v, visited):

        # Mark the current node as visited
        # and print it
        visited.add(v)
        print(v, end=' ')

        # Recur for all the vertices
        # adjacent to this vertex
        for neighbour in self.graph[v]:
            if neighbour not in visited:
                self.DFSUtil(neighbour, visited)

    # The function to do DFS traversal. It uses
    # recursive DFSUtil()
    def DFS(self, v):

        # Create a set to store visited vertices
        visited = set()

        # Call the recursive helper function
        # to print DFS traversal
        self.DFSUtil(v, visited)

# Driver code

# Create a graph given
# in the above diagram
g = Graph()
g.addEdge(0, 1)
g.addEdge(0, 2)
g.addEdge(1, 2)
g.addEdge(2, 0)
g.addEdge(2, 3)
g.addEdge(3, 3)

print("Following is DFS from (starting from vertex 2)")
g.DFS(2)

# A Python 3 program to
# demonstrate working of
# recursion

def printFun(test):

    if (test < 1):
        return
    else:

        print(test, end=" ")
        printFun(test-1)  # statement 2
        print(test, end=" ")
        return

# Driver Code
test = 3
printFun(test)

# Python3 code to linearly search x in arr[].
# If x is present then return its location,
# otherwise return -1


def search(arr, n, x):

    for i in range(0, n):
        if (arr[i] == x):
            return i
    return -1


# Driver Code
arr = [2, 3, 4, 10, 40]
x = 10
n = len(arr)

# Function call
result = search(arr, n, x)
if(result == -1):
    print("Element is not present in array")
else:
    print("Element is present at index", result)

# Python3 Program for recursive binary search.

# Returns index of x in arr if present, else -1
def binarySearch (arr, l, r, x):

    # Check base case
    if r >= l:

        mid = l + (r - l) // 2

        # If element is present at the middle itself
        if arr[mid] == x:
            return mid
        
        # If element is smaller than mid, then it
        # can only be present in left subarray
        elif arr[mid] > x:
            return binarySearch(arr, l, mid-1, x)

        # Else the element can only be present
        # in right subarray
        else:
            return binarySearch(arr, mid + 1, r, x)

    else:
        # Element is not present in the array
        return -1

# Driver Code
arr = [ 2, 3, 4, 10, 40 ]
x = 10

# Function call
result = binarySearch(arr, 0, len(arr)-1, x)

if result != -1:
    print ("Element is present at index % d" % result)
else:
    print ("Element is not present in array")

# Python program for implementation of Selection
# Sort
import sys


A = [64, 25, 12, 22, 11]

# Traverse through all array elements
for i in range(len(A)):
    
    # Find the minimum element in remaining
    # unsorted array
    min_idx = i
    for j in range(i+1, len(A)):
        if A[min_idx] > A[j]:
            min_idx = j
            
    # Swap the found minimum element with
    # the first element    
    A[i], A[min_idx] = A[min_idx], A[i]

# Driver code to test above
print ("Sorted array")
for i in range(len(A)):
    print("%d" %A[i]),

# Python program for implementation of Bubble Sort

def bubbleSort(arr):
    n = len(arr)

    # Traverse through all array elements
    for i in range(n):

        # Last i elements are already in place
        for j in range(0, n-i-1):

            # traverse the array from 0 to n-i-1
            # Swap if the element found is greater
            # than the next element
            if arr[j] > arr[j+1] :
                arr[j], arr[j+1] = arr[j+1], arr[j]

# Driver code to test above
arr = [64, 34, 25, 12, 22, 11, 90]

bubbleSort(arr)

print ("Sorted array is:")
for i in range(len(arr)):
    print ("%d" %arr[i]),

# Python program for implementation of Insertion Sort

# Function to do insertion sort
def insertionSort(arr):

    # Traverse through 1 to len(arr)
    for i in range(1, len(arr)):

        key = arr[i]

        # Move elements of arr[0..i-1], that are
        # greater than key, to one position ahead
        # of their current position
        j = i-1
        while j >= 0 and key < arr[j] :
                arr[j + 1] = arr[j]
                j -= 1
        arr[j + 1] = key


# Driver code to test above
arr = [12, 11, 13, 5, 6]
insertionSort(arr)
for i in range(len(arr)):
    print ("% d" % arr[i])

# Python program for implementation of MergeSort
def mergeSort(arr):
    if len(arr) > 1:

        # Finding the mid of the array
        mid = len(arr)//2

        # Dividing the array elements
        L = arr[:mid]

        # into 2 halves
        R = arr[mid:]

        # Sorting the first half
        mergeSort(L)

        # Sorting the second half
        mergeSort(R)

        i = j = k = 0

        # Copy data to temp arrays L[] and R[]
        while i < len(L) and j < len(R):
            if L[i] < R[j]:
                arr[k] = L[i]
                i += 1
            else:
                arr[k] = R[j]
                j += 1
            k += 1

        # Checking if any element was left
        while i < len(L):
            arr[k] = L[i]
            i += 1
            k += 1

        while j < len(R):
            arr[k] = R[j]
            j += 1
            k += 1

# Code to print the list


def printList(arr):
    for i in range(len(arr)):
        print(arr[i], end=" ")
    print()


# Driver Code
if __name__ == '__main__':
    arr = [12, 11, 13, 5, 6, 7]
    print("Given array is", end="\n")
    printList(arr)
    mergeSort(arr)
    print("Sorted array is: ", end="\n")
    printList(arr)

# Python3 implementation of QuickSort

# This Function handles sorting part of quick sort
# start and end points to first and last element of
# an array respectively
def partition(start, end, array):
    
    # Initializing pivot's index to start
    pivot_index = start
    pivot = array[pivot_index]
    
    # This loop runs till start pointer crosses
    # end pointer, and when it does we swap the
    # pivot with element on end pointer
    while start < end:
        
        # Increment the start pointer till it finds an
        # element greater than pivot
        while start < len(array) and array[start] <= pivot:
            start += 1
            
        # Decrement the end pointer till it finds an
        # element less than pivot
        while array[end] > pivot:
            end -= 1
        
        # If start and end have not crossed each other,
        # swap the numbers on start and end
        if(start < end):
            array[start], array[end] = array[end], array[start]
    
    # Swap pivot element with element on end pointer.
    # This puts pivot on its correct sorted place.
    array[end], array[pivot_index] = array[pivot_index], array[end]
    
    # Returning end pointer to divide the array into 2
    return end
    
# The main function that implements QuickSort
def quick_sort(start, end, array):
    
    if (start < end):
        
        # p is partitioning index, array[p]
        # is at right place
        p = partition(start, end, array)
        
        # Sort elements before partition
        # and after partition
        quick_sort(start, p - 1, array)
        quick_sort(p + 1, end, array)
        
# Driver code
array = [ 10, 7, 8, 9, 1, 5 ]
quick_sort(0, len(array) - 1, array)

print(f'Sorted array: {array}')

# Python3 program for implementation of Shell Sort

def shellSort(arr):
    gap = len(arr) // 2 # initialize the gap

    while gap > 0:
        i = 0
        j = gap
        
        # check the array in from left to right
        # till the last possible index of j
        while j < len(arr):
    
            if arr[i] >arr[j]:
                arr[i],arr[j] = arr[j],arr[i]
            
            i += 1
            j += 1
        
            # now, we look back from ith index to the left
            # we swap the values which are not in the right order.
            k = i
            while k - gap > -1:

                if arr[k - gap] > arr[k]:
                    arr[k-gap],arr[k] = arr[k],arr[k-gap]
                k -= 1

        gap //= 2


# driver to check the code
arr2 = [12, 34, 54, 2, 3]
print("input array:",arr2)

shellSort(arr2)
print("sorted array",arr2)